Animal species acquire names through two distinct methods: informal common names used in daily language and formal scientific names used by the global research community. While common names are fluid and vary by region, scientific nomenclature follows a strict, standardized process to ensure absolute clarity across all languages. This article focuses on the formal, regulated system and the international body responsible for maintaining it.
The System Used for Scientific Naming
The modern framework for scientifically identifying organisms is called Binomial Nomenclature, a two-name system. This method assigns every recognized species a unique combination consisting of a genus name followed by a species name, such as Homo sapiens. The genus name is always capitalized, and the species name is lowercase; both are italicized when written.
This standardized approach was introduced in the 18th century by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus, the originator of modern taxonomy. Linnaeus created a hierarchical structure, classifying organisms into nested categories like kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. This structure provides context, showing the evolutionary relationships between different life forms.
The standardization inherent in this taxonomic system is designed to overcome linguistic barriers and ambiguities worldwide. Before this system, species were often described using long, descriptive phrases that varied wildly between researchers and countries. The concise, two-part scientific name ensures that scientists globally know precisely which organism is being discussed.
The Global Authority That Governs Animal Names
The authority that manages the formal naming of animal species is the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). This body is composed of international professional taxonomists responsible for interpreting and applying the rules of nomenclature. The ICZN does not actively discover or name new species itself but acts as a judicial body for the scientific community.
The rules governing animal names are contained within the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, often called the Code. This Code is a set of mandatory provisions designed to promote stability and universality in scientific names. It is the only legally binding document governing zoological names, ensuring every species has one correct scientific name.
The primary function of the ICZN is to resolve complicated naming disputes and inconsistencies arising from historical or conflicting publications. For example, if two different names were accidentally applied to the same species, the ICZN intervenes to determine the correct, valid name according to the Code’s rules. This oversight ensures the global catalog of animal life remains unambiguous and stable.
Essential Rules for Scientific Naming
Taxonomists proposing a new name must adhere to strict requirements mandated by the Code. All scientific names must be treated as Latin, regardless of their origin, to provide a fixed linguistic base. Names can be derived from various sources, including Greek or modern languages, but they must be Latinized in form.
A fundamental constraint is the requirement for absolute uniqueness across the entire animal kingdom. The combination of a genus name and a species name must not have been previously published for any other living or extinct animal species. A name used before is considered a homonym and must be rejected or replaced.
The Principle of Priority is the most significant rule in resolving conflicts and ensuring stability. This principle dictates that the first name validly published for a species is the correct one that must be used. If a species is later described and given a different name, that subsequent name becomes a junior synonym and is permanently suppressed in favor of the original, oldest name.
The publication must also meet specific standards, including the designation of a type specimen and an adequate description, to be considered valid under the Code. Names proposed but not officially published, such as those found only in museum collections, are considered nomina nuda (naked names) and have no standing in nomenclature.
The Process of Naming a Newly Discovered Species
The Researcher’s Role
The process of formally naming a newly discovered species begins with the researcher or team who collected and studied the specimen. While the ICZN enforces the rules, the discoverer, typically a professional taxonomist, holds the privilege of proposing the name and describing the new organism. This privilege is often used to honor colleagues, benefactors, or the geographical location of the discovery.
Designating the Holotype
After collecting the physical specimen, the researcher must formally designate a single individual as the holotype. The holotype is the single, physical example that serves as the definitive reference point for the entire species name. It is usually preserved in a major natural history museum collection and acts as the objective standard against which all future specimens must be compared for correct identification.
Formal Description and Publication
The next step is the creation of a comprehensive, formal description of the new species. This description must detail the unique morphological, anatomical, and sometimes genetic characteristics that reliably distinguish the new species from all others. The description is often accompanied by illustrations and a diagnosis explaining how the species differs from its closest relatives.
Finally, the researcher must submit the entire proposal to a recognized scientific journal for publication. The journal sends the manuscript to external experts for peer review, ensuring the data meets rigorous scientific standards. Only upon formal publication does the proposed name become available and official under the rules of the ICZN Code, establishing the name’s priority.
The Role of Common Names
In stark contrast to the highly regulated scientific names, common names are determined by local custom, language, and cultural tradition. These names are not subject to any international governing body or set of mandatory rules, leading to significant regional and linguistic variation. A single species may have dozens of common names, or a single common name might refer to several different species.
This lack of regulation means that common names are inherently ambiguous and prone to confusion in a global context. For example, the name “robin” refers to Erithacus rubecula in Europe and Turdus migratorius in North America, two entirely different bird species. This variation makes common names unsuitable for use in scientific research or international trade agreements where precision is paramount.
While some national or regional organizations attempt to create standardized common names for their areas, these standards lack the legal force of the ICZN Code. These efforts are recommendations intended to improve local communication rather than mandatory global designations. Common names remain useful for general public communication but are always secondary to the formal scientific name in research and regulation.